Does the Broken Window Theory Work?

Does the Broken Window Theory Work?Many people wonder if the broken window theory works or not. This is a question that many people are asking in an attempt to determine if it is possible to use the broken window theory in order to stop someone from committing a crime.The broken window theory is a theory which has been used in criminal law for a number of years now. This theory basically says that if someone can break into another person's property then they have the right to do whatever they want to the property. Therefore, this means that if someone breaks into someone else's property then they can do whatever they want to that property without being punished by the owner.In order to understand the broken window theory, you must first understand what the phrase 'broken window' means. This phrase was coined by John Edwin Locke in 1690.The original meaning of the phrase was a common image of a window that was smashed in order to show its lack of functionality. You could argue that it was meant to show the fact that the window was broken and not working. However, since the time of Isaac Newton it has been used in many ways. In particular, this theory applies to cases where people are committing crimes against other people or property.In order to use the broken window theory, you must first be able to prove that it is impossible for the victim to regain the property or person that was stolen from them. For example, in order to use the broken window theory in order to convict someone of theft you must be able to prove that they did not return the property or person that was stolen from them. In many instances you will be able to prove this through physical evidence or witness testimony.So how do you use the broken window theory? To use the broken window theory, you must find an instance where a victim was involved in a break-in and that property or person was stolen from them. If the owner can be proven to have consented to the break-in then it is not necessary to prove that they did not consent.If you want to see an example of the broken window theory then look at the movie Catch Me If You Can. In this movie a group of individuals broke into a professor's house and stole his money and his documents. The professor was then able to get his property back when he agreed to pay a stranger to look after his home while he was on vacation.The broken window theory has been used in many instances including helping to convict thieves. In order to make sure that the theory actually works then you need to learn more about it before you choose to use it in your situation.

Writing Research Papers for Researches in the Directory

Writing Research Papers for Researches in the DirectoryStudents are struggling to write research papers which will have both an intellectual content and have an academic quality. A lot of students want to have their papers published in an article directory but are not satisfied with the results that they get. The common problem that they have is that they do not know how to properly incorporate the dissertation outline into their research paper.It is very important for students to study and prepare their research papers for submitting them to the best directories so that their research papers will be accepted. There are many article directories available on the internet that allow their members to have their articles submitted to them. This directory is considered to be very valuable because it will give them an idea about how to handle the different aspects in writing a research paper.Most of the editors and writers will tell you that to make your research papers to stand out from o thers, you should follow the following steps. There are some authors who make it very difficult for their reader by introducing unnecessary words which will not help in making their article longer. There are also many writers who think that their articles need to have academic standards when in fact there are just some aspects which should be left out from the article.Article directory is an excellent place to learn and hone your research writing skills. In order to find out more about the article directory, you can look at the websites of top publishers. These are the reputable ones that are listed in several publications across the world.For the writer to succeed in writing articles in the article directory, it is important that he knows his subject very well. If you are not confident enough in yourself in writing about certain subjects, then you may want to visit the review section of the article directory. You can also look for writing assistance from expert writers who are loca ted in different parts of the country.The author has to list down the most essential points that he wants to emphasize in his article so that readers would easily recognize them. Reading over the articles from the article directory will also make you realize the importance of giving priority to the written composition. When you are able to create a research paper that will be able to bring attention to your writing, then it is indeed a good result.The first step towards writing an article in the article directory is to create an outline. You should understand that article directories will not allow for the inclusion of many unnecessary details when it comes to your research paper. However, if you cannot afford to edit the outline after creation, then you may want to use a ghost writer to do it for you.For those students who are not satisfied with the progress they have made in the writing process, it is recommended that they look for assistance from professional writers who are loca ted in the article directory. They are quite knowledgeable about the subject matter and will be able to guide you in your research writing process. With their help, you will be able to produce a well-written, academically sound research paper.

Short Article Reveals the Undeniable Facts About Compare and Contrast Essay Topics 2017 and How It Can Affect You

Short Article Reveals the Undeniable Facts About Compare and Contrast Essay Topics 2017 and How It Can Affect You When examining early childhood programs there are lots of similarities and differences around the board. It is possible to choose one based on your field of study and individual interests. If you're into technology, then you're able to write a paper at which you'll compare similarities or name differences between the two kinds of smartphones. Or, if you're examining an individual, such as, for instance, a president, decide on another president for comparison or contrast. The Upside to Compare and Contrast Essay Topics 2017 Purpose Comparison-contrast essays can serve a number of purposes, and produce many different tones as an outcome. You also know how to come across sources and the very best kind to utilize in your paper to allow it to be relevant and interesting. As soon as you have narrowed your focus, after that you can recognize the points in your Venn dia gram which you will put in your paper. To compose a high-quality paper, you've got to understand how to pick your topic properly and utilize it to create a practical outline. There are many ways in which you are able to make your paper funny. You must keep in mind this to find the greatest possible grade on your essay, you must use reliable sources in the proper way. If you discover that you are fighting to think of compare and contrast essay suggestions for your paper, then it is fairly understandable, a lot of people do. So now you understand how to select the best compare and contrast topics and the various segments which you need to address when writing. If reading an example you've got a wish to discover more about the objects' comparison, then its author has done a suitable job. You're able to restate your thesis statement and point out a number of the arguments used over the full essay that backs it up. So long as you have narrowed your focus to a few of points, you can discover that your essay flows better in case you dedicate the excess space for the analysis of each point. In the majority of instances, the topics you pick should be clos ely related. Choosing the right topics might take a while in case you don't have a list of sample topics facing you. There's a perfect case of such topics below. Finding the perfect topic isn't the hardest job in the planet, all you need to do is to take a few factors under consideration. The Awful Side of Compare and Contrast Essay Topics 2017 If you would like to see more topics, make certain to look at My Homework Done. Students who excel in writing about such complex topic might have an opportunity to be enrolled into a number of the ideal Art universities to come up with their abilities and talent. Compare and Contrast Essay Topics 2017 Options Essays are not difficult to writethey all follow the identical structurewhich I will demonstrate in a minute. Exactly like descriptive essay examples and other sorts of academic essays, a comparative essay can be made in various ways. Secondly, there's a assure of the excellent good high quality essays and study papers. There are additionally some lessons that you should always keep in mind before you get started writing your essay. If you should compose a compare and contrast essay, you should choose a very good topic you're likely to base the research on. You only have to order a great essay from experts with the greatest academic degrees in a number of fields. The Lost Secret of Compare and Contrast Essay Topics 2017 You may also choose a single topic at the moment and get started practicing. You must research your topic to select three claims. If you wish to be certain you get an exceptional topic for your essay, you are able to look through the overall directions of our topics and hunt to find out more online. Lucky for you, there are a lot of topics you could concentrate on when writing and it's all your responsibility to ascertain the precise topic that you wish to build on. Remember that you have to make it sound appealing and original, as nobody would want to complete the text that's dull or old news. You can't do both, as it's going to be too confusing for your readers. The first thing which you have to do before you get started writing is to select an acceptable topic to write about. You've got a complete collection of things to compare.

Juvenile Delinquency in the Classroom Essays - 1190 Words

In depicting juvenile delinquency in the classroom, a few film directors portrayed novice teachers desire to reach what the school system customarily labeled as problem students. These films illustrate that these students are often categorized quickly and unfairly, and hopeful intervention by a few caring and zealous teachers is enough to change their lives and attitudes for the better. In the black and white 1955 film Blackboard Jungle, Mr. Dadier (played by Glenn Ford) was an idealistic teacher on his first job in a tough urban mostly white male high school. The characters were dressed in clothing of the time (jeans rolled up at the cuffs, tee shirts, bow ties, baseball caps) and the boys wore their hair in the Elvis Presley†¦show more content†¦Dadier made a connection with Artie West, which occurred after hard work and many failed teaching efforts. Mr. Dadier finally realized how to breathe life into his lessons so that they became meaningful to his students. He also showed respect for them by allowing them to showcase their talents in the Christmas program. These two strategies combined were enough to earn the respect of the classrooms gang leader. Artie West, in turn, put the word out to the other students to work hard and behave in this teachers class. Other teachers shared in Mr. Dadiers success by stating that the momentum created in Mr. Dadie rs English class had carried over into their own classes. This movie had a positive outcome. Continued hard work would be necessary for the positive change to continue. Blackboard Jungle opened and closed with Bill Haley and the Comets Rock Around the Clock, which helped stir quite a ruckus - so much so, the film was banned from many theatres. But the films central point was nevertheless clear: students who we think are aimless and recalcitrant only need the thoughtful guidance of a concerned teacher to make learning meaningful and rewarding. Twelve years after the release of Blackboard Jungle, Sidney Portier starred in yet another film featuring juvenile delinquency in the classroom. To Sir With Love, filmed in 1967--a time when there was great hostility in theShow MoreRelatedJuvenile Delinquency In Juveniles961 Words   |  4 PagesThe role in school contribute to the result of students creating the delinquency in juveniles because school is the gateway for students to engage with others, exposing their true self and behavior without parental presence where students may conduct their behavior with deviant means implicating what they are taught at home. School is where they learn to associate with others that are different from them whether it be ethnic, race and background, social status, poverty rate, family upbringing orRead MoreDoes Participation Sports Keep Juveniles Out Of Trouble?896 Words   |  4 PagesSports Keep Juveniles Out of Trouble? Today’s youth is our society’s future, which is why it is important to keep them safe and out of harm’s way. Children and teens who get into trouble are more likely to continue doing so as they reach adulthood. It is important to give children an alternative extra-curricular activity than hanging out with their friends unsupervised with peer pressure all around them. Sports can be a great way to help these children improve their lives. â€Å"Juvenile crime is onRead MoreThe Effects Of Juvenile Delinquency On Teens864 Words   |  4 Pagesunderdevelopment, deficiency and lack of housing areas. Theses can also affect teens that increase-doing crimes in which it called juvenile delinquency. There are two terms that define juvenile delinquency, 1: conduct by a juvenile characterized by antisocial behavior that is a beyond parental control and therefore subject to legal action; 2: a violation of law committed by a juvenile and not punishable by death or live imprisonment. (Cite). In this topic, I will explain more about family factors in whichRead MoreJuvenile Delinquency Is A Great Issue Essay1462 Words   |  6 PagesJuvenile delinquency has become a great issue in this country. The reasons for delinquency are many, yet the fixes to the delinquency problem are few. Not enough is being done for the youth of this country to rehabilitate, deter, or change the way the youth acts. There isn’t enough communicatio n or interaction between the key stakeholders that can help prevent juvenile delinquency. For the longest time juvenile delinquency has been increasing despite any efforts put forth by lawmakers to deter thisRead MoreRelationship Between Police Intervention And Juvenile Delinquency1459 Words   |  6 PagesStephanie A. Wiley and Finn-Aage Esbensen’s article (2016) research the relationship between police intervention and juvenile delinquency and what polices are ideal for deterring deviance amplification. There are two main theories that initiate America’s juvenile justice system: labeling and deterrence. Essentially, labeling proponents believe that official intervention increases delinquency and, oppositely, deterrence theorists argue that it cracks down on deviancy. Wiley et al. (2016:283) want to â€Å"informRead MoreJuvenile Delinquency : A Complex Social Phenomenon Of Criminal Behavior Essay1701 Words   |  7 Pages Introduction Given the range and significance of juvenile delinquency, the demand for understanding strategies has become apparent in order to combat a complex social phenomenon of criminal behavior in juveniles. The juvenile justice system is an intricate part of juvenile justice intertwining law enforcement, court and correctional agencies along with the community when dealing with juvenile delinquents. Thus, understanding delinquents and how they behave is crucial when considering the effectivenessRead MoreNew York Youth Center ( N.y.y.c )962 Words   |  4 PagesThis would help form a bond and the parents and child could communicate about what the child did at school and afterschool. Rather than engaging themselves in criminal behaviors outside activities. The goals of N.Y.Y.C are to decrease the juvenile delinquency rates in this age range. I hope to prevent pre-teens from becoming delinquents before they set into older or bigger crime by guiding and educating their parents on how to intercede before the onset of delinquent behavior. I hope to teach theRead MoreFice Of Juvenile Justice And Delinquency Prevention1668 Words   |  7 PagesThe Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP) provides leadership and technical assistance in the development, implementation, and operation of new approaches, techniques, and methods related to juvenile justice and delinquency prevention. In 1999, OJJDP created the Safe Start Initiative to prevent and reduce the impact of children s exposure to violence in both the home and the community, and to expand the knowledge base of evidence-based practices. Exposure to violence is definedRead MoreAdolescence And Adulthood And The Factors That Promote Childhood Delinquency Essay1731 Words   |  7 Pagesa correlate of delinquency is anything that shows itself to have a relationship to delinquency† (Bates Swan, 2014). Our society has always put delinquency in the same category as school systems, but what is commonly overlooked are many other factors that go into the correlation between schools and delinquency. The label of delinquency in schools does not just get slapped on because the justice system is looking for an excuse. There are many articles over adolescent delinquency and less researchRead MoreGirls and Crime Essay965 Words   |  4 PagesGirls and Crime Stress, teenage mother hood, drug habits all those components needs survival skills. How do you keep those survival skills? Gangs, prostitution, abuse? To us juvenile delinquency is something that we look at it with disdain instead of taking the time to look into sociological issues, emotional issues and the reality that would give us a clearer view and still not make us feel or understand the conditions they live in, the pressures they go through or face everyday. For us to

Pluto free essay sample

In the following essay the problems of Pluto Telecommunications will be outlined and analysed with recommendations offered as to how the issues can be addressed. Identification of the Problems: Communication has eroded between the three departments so that â€Å"they are actually working against one another†. This break down has resulted in lost orders and an increase in the number of complaints from customers. Many of the problems experienced probably stem from the rapid growth experienced by the company over the last 12 months. Ms Tsang is faced by the following issues: (a) Each department has its own aims and motivations which are all different from each other department. Hence there are three department subcultures that are not all integrated and are working almost as three separate businesses. It is no surprise that inter-department communication is poor. (b) Ms Tsang has a group of directors that are not prepared to voice their honest opinions. (c) Ms Tsang’s leadership is questionable given that she has been unable to coordinate the work of her three directors and hence their departments. Analysis of the problems: In the following analysis Pluto Telecommunications and her issues will be considered with regard to the individuals, the groups and the organisation. The environment in which Pluto operates will not be considered. Organisational Level of Analysis: 1. The culture: The divergence of the three departments and their separate subcultures has made it very difficult for the unitary organisational culture that Ms Tsang promotes, to become established. In truth the rapid growth that has occurred in the last year has meant that this unitary vision has not been integrated enough. It can be assumed that in an industry where customers’ needs are rapidly evolving that Pluto’s culture has a strong focus on adaptability. This has meant that individual departments have developed their own subcultures unchecked and therefore there is no one single view of what is, and what is not, acceptable. 2. The structure: The business is built on departmental silos. Each department reports to each department head who then reports to Ms Tsang. Mathew Craven reports that â€Å"(such) differentiation may indeed be appropriate for the turbulent and uncertain telecommunications environment and this accords with theories of structure-environment fit with the separate groups in the company being able to respond to changes in technology reasonably efficiently. The issues arise from the lack of integration of the departments with management theorists advocating departmental interdependence and the need for higher levels of integration in more turbulent, complex and uncertain environments. Fig 1 shows that Pluto’s structure more closely resembles that of a mechanistic organisation that would suit operating in an environment that has far less uncertainty. ‘Mechanistic’ Form Pluto Telecommunications ‘Organic’ Form Specialized Tasks Specialized Tasks Flexible Tasks Standard, formal procedures Standard, formal procedures Highly Informal Centralised power and control Centralised power and control Decentralised power and control Vertical Communications Vertical Communications Lateral Communications Command and Control Command and Control Advice and Information Fig 1: Comparison of Pluto Telecommunications to the Burns Stalker model. Group Level of Analysis: 1. The culture: The different cultures that exist in each department have evolved because of the variable level of uncertainty that is encountered by that department. Hence there is a high level of internal differentiation created by differences in departmental structure, goals, orientation to time and interpersonal relationships. i. Sales: The sales team operate in a performance based culture. They are rewarded individually and competitively and bear symbols such as company cars, mobile phones and laptops. These symbols reinforce the top-dog sales culture. ii. Customer Service: Charles Handy (Handy, 1986) provides an accurate description of this group as fitting into a Role Culture with resources being tightly controlled; the structure is highly formalised where position power and rules are the main basis of influence. Authority is defined clearly and the formal work style although perhaps suitable for engineering work, will hinder the department in communicating with other departments where the style is less formal. iii. Marketing: There is clearly a reluctance of staff to get involved with the other departments. This culture is reinforced by their geographical location (London based and remote from other functions) as well as a cosy, we-all-went-to-university clickiness. 2. The structure: The high level of environmental uncertainty has impacted upon the structure (Lawrence and Lorsh, 1969). Fig 2 shows the differences in goals and orientations of the three departments. This has created a high level of internal differentiation created by differences in departmental structure, education, goals, and orientations to time and interpersonal relationships. Sales Department Customer Service Department Marketing Department Goals Sell product Quality Marketing campaigns and pricing Time Horizon Short Short Long Interpersonal Orientation Social Mostly task Task Formality of Structure Less formal Formal Less formal Targets Well defined and highly rewarded Well defined and poorly rewarded Poorly defined and no reward. Fig 2: The differences in department orientations and goals within the organisation. Individual Level of Analysis: 1. Leadership of the senior team: Leadership has been defined as the creation of a vision about a desired future state which seeks to enmesh all members of an organisation in its net (Bryman, 1986 cited by Buchanan and Huczynski, 1997). In this respect Ms Tsang has failed. Her directors are culpable of Groupthink possibly as a result of being involved in a highly fluid and competitive operating environment and as such have made flawed decisions so as to maintain harmony in the senior team. 2. Motivation: Fig 3 shows the difference in department motivations with a clear bias towards extrinsic motivations and a preference for driving individual performance. In addition there is clearly only one team that has a vested interest in innovation while marketing appear content to keep the status quo while customer service appear focused on ‘just not being the worst performer!’. Sales Department Customer Service Department Marketing Department Motivation Extrinsic financial reward based on sales Extrinsic fear of failure and company recriminations Extrinsic and related to working conditions etc. Pros Drives short term behaviour and temporary inflation of sales None None Cons Drives individual behaviour Drives a culture of just doing enough Drives individual behaviour that may not be aligned to the organisations goals Impacts on relationships with other departments Drives individual behaviour Fig 3: Motivation of departments. Alternatives: Fig 4 shows the various alternatives that are open to the organisation. An assessment of the value of these alternatives has been made so as to aid a final recommendation to management: Alternative Narrative Pro Con Change the organisation structure Restructure so as to focus on a divisional (market focused) structure rather than the incumbent functional structure Greater task-goals integration Expensive Decentralisation Duplication of resources Increased autonomy Control problems with managing such issues as project investment decisions Modify the reward structure Job re-design using job enrichment principles to focus on intrinsic factors as well as extrinsic factors Greater task-goal integration Will take time Decrease employee churn and absenteeism Chance of loss of control Expensive Root branch senior team replacement Use the opportunity to remove the department directors and create the impetus to change with new leadership Provides a compelling and clear message that unity is an imperative Expensive New ideas and renewed energy Loss of experience Will take time for new directors to make a difference Relocation Bring the whole company under one roof Provides a compelling and clear message that unity is an imperative Expensive although overhead savings in the long term Should improve communication and departmental understanding Disruptive Develop a new department Invest in the formation of a department offering integration services e.g. project managers Provides a compelling and clear message that unity is an imperative Expensive Provides expertise in integration Invest in strategies to combat Groupthink After the Cuban Missile Crisis JFK focused on inviting external experts to share their viewpoints, dividing groups so as to reduce cohesion and absenting himself from the meeting to avoid pressing his own viewpoint. Ms Tsang could do the same. Increase debate Too much conflict could be unconstructive and hamper change efforts Improve the quality of decisions and make them more rational Dampen bias Fig 4: Table to show viable alternatives and a balanced view of pros and cons. Managerial Recommendations: Fig 5 shows the recommendations within the short, medium and long term timescales. It is anticipated that following the recommendations of Kotter and Schlesinger (1979) that a strategy would be adopted that involved education communication. It is to be expected that if the imperative is to drive inter-departmental communication then the process should begin with communicating widely with the business. Timescale Activity Narrative Short Combat Groupthink This will involve developing a cross departmental working party that can consider the issues that have been presented and offering solutions Develop a cross-functional project focused working party Medium Modify the reward structure and re-design jobs to focus on intrinsic factors The recommendations of the working party will inform this decision. Long Relocate core business functions to be under one roof Fig 5: A tempo for managerial recommendations for change.

Why is the Holy Land an important site for Jesus f Essays - Religion

Why is the Holy Land an important site for Jesus faith? Since it is the land I guaranteed to them, the land I would take them back to. It is likewise rich in history as it is the place I lived, instructed, and passed on for all. That is likewise where I passed on the cross for each one's sins. It is the place I passed and rose once more. Whyis theHoly Landanimportant siteforMuhammad's faith? The Holy land is a critical site to my confidence since that is the place the holy messenger Gabriel came to me disclosing to me I was to be the errand person of God. That is a sacred place for the Islamic individuals and conviction. That is the place essential mosques are found. Whyis theHoly Landanimportant siteforMoses faith? The Holy land is a vital site for my confidence since that is the place I got the 10 instructions from God. That is likewise where I lead many individuals. Jesus what is your perspective or feelings about other monotheistic faiths? My viewpoint on the other monotheistic beliefs are that if that is the thing that they need to accept than that is alright because that is their decision and individuals can settle on their own decisions. It is dependent upon them to choose. With respect to alternate religions, as I would like to think are not genuine adherents since they don't have confidence in me. Muhammad what is your perspective or feelings about other monotheistic faiths? My point of view alternate religions has a similar basic thought. I have dependably firmly distinguished the other conviction frameworks. The essential convictions of my confidence are that there is just a single God and that I am his picked errand person to get the message out of God. My fundamental convictions contrast with the others because to them I am not the flag-bearer of God. Moses what is your perspective or feelings about other monotheistic faiths? The fundamental convictions of my faith vary from the other monotheistic on the grounds that in my faith Moses, is the envoy to God and Jesus has not yet come to earth. Jesus, what is the holy book of your faith and how does it compare to the others? All things considered, the blessed book of my faith, is known as the Bible. The book of scriptures is loaded with encounters and lessons took in for individuals to gain from. It thinks about to the others in light of the fact that, the book of scriptures discusses God and Jesus and shows that Jesus is the child of God. Muhammad, what is the holy book of your faith and how does it compare to the others? Well the blessed book of my confidence is known as the Qur'an. It analyzes to the others in light of the fact that my book of confidence shows that Mohammed, is the delivery person of God and is the divinely selected individual to get the message out of God. It resembles the others since it educates our confidence simply like theirs instructs their confidence. Moses, what is the holy book of your faith and how does it compare to the others? All things considered, the Holy book of my confidence is known as the Torah, which intends to instruct. Contrasted with the other sacred books the Torah has 613 rules. Additionally, the ten instructions. The Torah shows that I, Moses am the errand person of God. How are the beliefs of your faith similar to the other monotheistic faiths? Jesus-Like Moses' kin, my kin likewise have faith in one God and just a single. Other than that, my people groups Torah incorporates the old confirmation which is in the Bible. Moses- Like the other monotheistic beliefs, my believers trust in one God, and just a single. The Greek, for instance, have faith in more than one God; this makes them polytheistic. Muhammad- Like the other monotheistic religions, my kin trust that the originator of our religion is a relative of Abraham. What makes your religion monotheistic and what does it mean? Jesus- Mono is single and theistic means God, so monotheistic means the faith in only one God, and just a single God. My believers are

Understanding the Measles Virus (MV) The WritePass Journal

Understanding the Measles Virus (MV) Introduction Understanding the Measles Virus (MV) IntroductionSymptomsInfection and spreadDiagnosis TreatmentVaccinationSubacute sclerosing panencephalitis  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   (SSPE)ReferencesRelated Introduction Measles is a highly contagious disease caused by the Measles Virus (MV) which belongs to the Paramyxovirus family, and is of the genus Morbillivirus as it does not possess any virus-associated neuraminidase activity (Topley Wilsons 2005, Morgan Rapp 1977). It is primarily considered a childhood disease, easily communicable within a non-immunised population. Moreover, acute infection with the virus will confer lifelong immunity in most individuals (Schneider-Schaulies Meulen 2000). Therefore as the virus is also confined to humans with no asymptomatic carrier state, to remain endemic within a population it relies upon infection of those still susceptible to infection. The MV itself is approximately 100–300 nm in diameter, with a core of single-stranded RNA which encodes for 8 proteins, surrounded in a helical capsid (Griffin 2010; Schneider-Schaulies Meulen 2000). Two viral transmembrane proteins; fusion (F) protein is responsible for fusion of virus and host cell membranes, viral penetration, and hemolysis. Hemagglutinin (H) is responsible for adsorption of virus to cells. Antibodies to these proteins may mitigate against infection of host cells (Griffin 2010). Other proteins include the matrix or M protein which links the envelope to the ribonucleoplasmid core, and the nucleoprotein (N) forms part of the ribonucleocapsid along with phosphoprotein (P) and large polymerase protein (L) which both are also necessary for RNA synthesis. Non structural proteins C and V also regulate response to infection (Topley Wilson 2005). A schematic of the virus is shown in figure 1. Fig 1. Adapted from Morgan Rapp 1977 Schematic of Measles virus Canine distemper and rinderpest viruses also belong to the same genus and share close antigenic relationship. In October 2010 the UN Food and Agriculture Organisation announced that Rinderpest had been successfully eradicated. Infection with measles also provided the first insight into suppression of the immune system by a virus, thus permitting secondary infections to occur relating to the mortality of infection (McChesney et al 1989). This area is of much interest to immunologists and was first noted over 200 years ago as TB infection was seen to follow measles infection (Karp 1999), of which alterations in cell mediated immunity is of most clinical concern. This was noted by von Pirquet whist performing the tuberculin skin test which failed to respond to it thus predisposing to secondary infectious from measles induced immunosuppression (Topley Wilson 2005). Isolation of the virus in 1954 by Enders and Peebles allowed the advent of measles vaccination, with the first vaccines being produced in 1963. Safe and effective vaccination programmes with the live further attenuated vaccine have eliminated the virus from most westernised societies (WHO weekly 2008); however the virus remains a major cause of mortality in populations lacking access to adequate medical care (Kerdiles et al 2006). In 2008, 164 000 measles deaths were recorded globally (WHO fact sheet 2009) and as recent as January 2011 Kofi Annan called for the UN Executive Board to set an eradication date for measles (Measles Initiative 2011). Progress on this front continues with immunisation programmes and effective surveillance this is highlighted by the reduction of measles deaths by 78% between 2000 and 2008. Symptoms The measles virus normally enters the body through the upper respiratory tract, or conjunctiva. The first clinical sign of infection is usually a febrile illness (38.3 °c), which begins about 10 to 12 days after exposure to the virus, and lasts four to seven days (fig2). Further signs and symptoms then develop in this prodromal illness these include malaise, cough, coryza (runny nose), conjunctivitis, as the MV establishes a systemic infection involving multiple organ systems leading to Koplik spots and typical maculopapular rash and immunosuppression. Fig. 2. Adapted from Topley Wilson Microbiology Microbial Infections Immunology 10th edt. 2005. Transmission occurs through the air and involves close personal contact with an infected individual, surfaces or objects which they have been in contact. As the virus is highly contagious, it will remain active in the air and on these surfaces for up to two hours. It has been noted that up to 90% of people without immunity sharing a house with an infected individual will become infected (Schneider-Schaulies Meulen 2000). Infected individuals can transmit the MV from four days prior to the onset of the rash to four days after the rash erupts. Studies also show the MV can be inactivated by heat, light, acidic pH, ether, and trypsin (Topley Wilson 2005). The virus replicates in the respiratory tract and then reaches local lymphoid tissue, producing primary viremia. Lymphoid tissues such as the thymus, spleen, and tonsils are normal sites of replication. Following replication within the lymphoid tissue, the MV spreads to other organs including the skin, kidney, lungs, liver and gastrointestinal tract known as secondary viremia. The MV replicates in epithelial and endothelial cells and is accompanied by vascular dilation, increased vascular permability, mononuclear cell infiltration and infection of surrounding tissue (Topley Wilson 2005). Small white spots develop inside the buccal cavity known as Koplik’s spots (fig 3a) due to nectrotic infection of the submucous glands, at this stage the individual is highly contagious and giant cells are present in the sputum and other secretions this occurs just prior to development of the typical rash.   Each of these signs is a typical characteristic of measles infection the rash then erupts, usually on the forehead, face and upper neck. The rash then spreads to cover the entire body over the next 3 days, lasts for about six days before it begins to disperse, this typical presentation is seen in figure 3b. This rash is said to occur due to vascular congestion epithelial necrosis and oedema. The entire course of uncomplicated measles, from late prodrome to resolution of fever and rash, is approximately 7-10 days. Fig 3. Characteristics of Measles infection (accessed from google images) Complications arising from measles infection result mainly from opportunistic secondary infections due to the immunosuppression induced by MV. The depression of the immune response may last up to 6 months (Kerdiles et al 2006). Complications are more common in children under the age of five, or adults over the age of 20 and occur in individuals who arepoorly nourished, especially those insufficient in vitamin A, or individuals with existing immunodeficiency such as HIV/AIDS. Diarrhoea and severe dehydration is not uncommon in developing countries where secondary infection is likely and worsens their individual’s nutritional status; this along with lack of substantial vitamin A may lead to post-measles blindness. Ear infections and pneumonia may also occur which will require antibiotics to treat the imposing infectious agent. Treatment of giant cell pneumonia is a very protracted and causes the majority of measles related deaths. However, more serious complications like encephalitis and persistent brain inflammation known as subacute sclerosing panencephalitis (SSPE) also occur though these are rare. SSPE will be discussed further on in this text. Measles infection during pregnancy may induce spontaneous abortion or still births other reports have stated measles infection during pregnancy may produce infants with a low birth weight or congenital malformaty (Schneider-Schaulies Meulen 2000). Administration of antimeasles gammaglobulin less than three days after exposure may protect from infection this is discussed further in vaccination section. Acute encephalitis results in death in approximately 15% of patients who develop it (Schneider-Schaulies Meulen 2000). Development usually occurs eight days after onset of the rash, symptoms of this can include recurrence of a high fever, persistent headache, vomiting, drowsiness, seizures and coma. Measles Inclusion Body Encephalitis occurs only in the immunocompromised e.g. individuals with leukaemia present without rash as no immune response was elicited and is often confused with SSPE. Symptoms include seizures stupor or coma which is dependent on localisation of the disease within the CNS. This type of encephalitis has no antibodies detectable in the CSF (Schneider-Schaulies Meulen 2000). Infection and spread MV replication involves the transcription of viral RNA to give + sense mRNA before this can be translated. The F protein facilitates fusion with the plasma membrane. Viral multiplication occurs in the cytoplasm, using the RNA polymerase and RNA modification enzymes packaged in the virus and use the nucleoplasmid as a template to transcribe viral mRNAs; theseare capped, methylated and polyadenylated translated and packed into the new virues and bud out through the cell plasma membrane. The non structural proteins C and V also play an important role in replication of the virus, this has be confirmed by in vitro studies, results of studies with animal models show that these proteins are also important for the virulence of the virus. They have also been investigated for their ability to produce IFN responses; C protein was shown to inhibit this (Kerdiles et al 2006). MV interaction with the immune system involves studying measles infection in humans, naturally and experimentally infected rhesus monkeys, cotton rats and transgenic mice and also some in vitro models (Griffin 2010). It is well known that the primary target for the MV is the monocyte and primarily causes the viremia during infection with accompanied leukopenia. Three cellular receptors for MV are recognized: the low affinity membrane co-factor protein CD46, present on all nucleated cells was the first receptor identified for the MV (Topley Wilson 2005). CD46 is the natural binding site for C3b/C4b complement components however; it also binds to the viral hemagglutinin (H) protein of the measles virus. The second receptor; higher affinity signaling lymphocyte activation molecule (SLAM ⠁„ CD150), a glycoprotein belonging to the immunoglobulin superfamily is present on subsets of lymphocytes, thymocytes, macrophages, and DCs; and an unidentified receptor present on ciliated columnar respiratory epithelial cells (Griffin 2010). Recent studies have questioned the role of CD46 in vivo. This is confirmed as all viral strains tested preferentially bind CD150, therefore CD150 is the primary determinant of MV tropism (Griffin 2010). MV infections usually produce very distinctive cytopathic effects enabling formation of multinucleated giant cells. Binding of H protein to both CD46 and CD150 downregulate receptor expression; this may lead to activation of complement against uninfected lymphocytes, thus contributing to the associated leukopenia. This profound suppression of cell-mediated immunity was confirmed by Karp et al in 1996. Conversly interaction of H protein with TLR2 on surface of monocyte will stimulate IL-6 and increase CD150. This process also results in decreased IL-12 production from infected monocytes which may be a result of the reduction of IFN-ÃŽ ³ produced by T cells. The nucleocapsid protein (N) also reduces the release of IL-12 from monocytes, with resultant reduction in T cell proliferation which may lead to cellular apoptosis (Topley Wilson 2005). IFN-ÃŽ ³ also aids in the production of nitric oxide, though with down regulation of CD46 will alter the immune response to other intracellular pathogens e.g. mycobacteria. Therefore, CD46 as receptor in MV infection may disturb different aspect of the immune response. Downregulation of CD150 after infection may impair the Th1 response towards other pathogens due to the decrease in IFN-ÃŽ ³. Cytokines and chemokines produced during infection include IL-8 which is increase in early infection. IL-2, IFN-ÃŽ ³, are increased during the corresponding rash. In vitro systems have shown there is reduced IL-2 production during the inital stage of infection, Griffin et al shown that introduction of recombinant IL-2 along with neutralisation of high IL-4 restores lymphocyte proliferation (Topley Wilson 2005). The rash is associated with MV infection is due to the infiltration of CD4+ and CD8+ T cells into the site of replication, with the CD8+ response occurring more rapidly than CD4+ which is more protracted. IgM response to infection occurs alongside appearance of the rash, to which serological detection is diagnostic. Increased MV specific IgG follows recovery from infection conferring lifelong immunity, notably in vitro infection of B cells reduces Immunoglobulin production, through binding of N protein to activated cells however in vivo studies show no B cell defect (Niewiesk et al 2000). After resolution of the rash regulatory CD4+ cells produce IL-4, IL-10 and IL-13 (Griffin 2010). Changes to the cytokine profile seen with CD150 interactions may show that infection starts with a Th1 response and then converts to a regulatory Th2 response in later infection resulting in delayed hypersensitivy response. Diagnosis Treatment Diagnosis of measles is based upon the individuals’ history and clinical presentation, with appearance of Koplik spots and typical rash being diagnostic. However, laboratory methods may be required for more complicated cases e.g. in the case of modified or atypical measles. The virus is detectable by a number of different methodologies these include direct microscopy, immunofluorescence of nasopharyngeal secretions or urine, viral cultures and electron microscopy can all provide diagnosis. Though measles is best confirmed by serological detection of; IgM antibody against the virus, in the acute phase and IgG in the convalescent phase of disease using ELISA. Prevention of disease by administration of vaccine should always primary goal rather than treatment of disease, as the vaccine is cheap, safe, and effective. Adequate nutrition, fluid replacement and appropriate use of antibiotic if required is all that can be provided to treat measles infection though its recommended that all children in developing countries diagnosed with measles should receive treatment with two doses of vitamin A, given 24 hours apart should be provided to individuals in developing countries prevent permanent loss of vision, provision of this supplement has shown to reduce the number of deaths from measles by 50% (WHO factsheet 2009).    Vaccination Vaccination is the greatest success in Immunology; historically it all started with Jenner, cowpox and smallpox which led to production of a vaccine. However, now in the 21st century there are a multitude of vaccinations available. The WHO classified smallpox as being eradicated worldwide in 1980 and publish lists of prevalence of those diseases which they continue to strive to eliminate worldwide. The first measles vaccines were licensed in 1963. This included an inactivated vaccine and a live attenuated vaccine known as the Edmonston B Strain. The inactivated vaccine was withdrawn as it did not produce an immunogenic response and therefore did not provide immunity to the disease, those immunised with this vaccine may have later developed atypical measles if infected with the wild type virus. Atypical measles progresses similarly to measles though individuals will also experience headaches and abdominal pain with the rash beginning on the extremities and spreading over the body. It has been proposed the inactivated vaccine did not produce antibodies to the F protein and thus was unable to prevent its spread (Schneider-Schaulies Meulen 2000). Modified measles is another form of the disease which occurs in partially immunised children or individuals who have received immune serum globulin and symptoms appear much milder than seen in acute measles (Schneider-Schaulies Meulen 2000). The original Edmonston B vaccine was able to seroconvert 95% of recipients however it was withdrawn in 1975 as it produced a mild form of measles in up to 10% of those vaccinated, to reduce the side effects gammaglobulin was administered. Thus, further live attenuated vaccines were sought including the Schwarz strain in 1965, and the Edmonston-Enders strain produced by passage in chicken cells was licensed in 1968, which caused fewer reactions than the original Edmonston B vaccine (Undergraduate Notes). The vaccine was combined with mumps and rubella vaccines and is licensed in 1971 as MMR (Undergraduate Notes). Furthermore, two doses of the vaccine was recommended to ensure immunity in 1989, as about 15% of vaccinated children fail to develop immunity from the first dose (WHO factsheet 2009). Varicella vaccine may also be combined and administered as MMRV, this format of vaccination was licensed in 2005. These vaccines are now supplied lyophylised and contain a small amount of human albumin, neomycin, sorbitol, and gelatine and are reconstituted prior to use. Clinical study of 284 triple seronegative children, 11 months to 7 years of age, demonstrated high immunogenic capability of the vaccine as it induced hemagglutination-inhibition antibodies in 95% of individuals for the measles vaccine thus conferring its effectiveness (MMR vaccine 2010). However, dispute that the vaccine causes autism first arose when Wakefield et al reported this in 1998 which may have reduced uptake of vaccine in theUKfor a period time before these claims were discredited by epidemiological studies which consistently found no evidence of a link between the MMR vaccine and autism. Vaccination rates in theEnglandhave increased from the 80% low in 2003-4 but are still below the 95% level recommended by the WHO to ensure herd immunity (HPA), notably the number of measles cases recorded in 2010 has decreased with improved uptake of the vaccination (HPA2). Global cooperation between a number of organisations has also ensured that 83% children received their first measles vaccine by the age of 1, up from 72% in 2000 (WHO factsheet 2009), and will work together in advancing the global measles strategy. In countries where measles has been largely eliminated, cases imported from other countries remain an important source of infection. Subacute sclerosing panencephalitis  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   (SSPE) SSPE is an extremely rare degenerative condition of the brain caused by the reactivation of the measles virus after an interval of 6-8 years though incidences have also occurred almost 30 years from primary infection. The disorder is usually fatal and effects males more often than females, though incidence of SSPE is very low 1 case per 100 000(Schneider-Schaulies Meulen 2000). Most individuals with SSPE contracted the MV before the age of two, symptoms usually are slow and progressive, and begin with deterioration in the individuals’ mental faculty and individuals may experience hallucinations. Symptoms may not be recognised until further neurological or motor symptoms appear such as convulsions, dyspraxia, aphasia and other abnormal uncontrollable muscle movements. Visual disturbances may also occur if the virus invades the retina leading to complete blindness. The disease is nearly always fatal within 1 to 3 years. Diagnosis is made on the clinical presentation and confirmation by a high titre of antibody to the MV (Schneider-Schaulies Meulen 2000). Investigations would include electroencephalogram (EEG), and computerised tomography (CT) to shown scarring of the brain and neuronal activity. There is no treatment available for those afflicted with SSPE; anticonvulsants such as Phenobarbital, valproic acid and others may be prescribed to control seizures. Although this disease is very severe and rare the final cause of death is usually pneumonia, the pneumonia results from extreme muscle weakness. With adequate vaccination cases of SSPE have also declined. References Topley Wilsons Microbiology Microbial Infections – Immunology 10th edt. Published by Edward Arnold Ltd. 2005 Chapter 39 Acquired immunodeficiencies pgs 803-806 Morgan EM Rapp F. Measles Virus and Its Associated Diseases. Bacteriological reviews Sept. 1977, Vol. 41, No. 3 pgs. 636-666 Principles and Practice of Clinical Virology 4th edt. Published by John Wiley sons Ltd. 2000 chapter 11 Measles by Schneider-Schaulies Meulen pgs 357-385 GriffinDE. Measles virus-induced suppression of immune responses. Immunological Reviews 2010 Vol. 236: 176–189 McChesneyMB, Oldstone MBA, Fujinami RS et al Virus Induced Immunosuppression: Infection of peripheral blood mononuclear cells and suppression of Immunoglobulin synthesis during natural measles virus infection in rhesus monkeys. Journal of infectious diseases 1989 159:4 757-760 Karp CL. Measles: immunosuppression, interleukin-12, and complement receptors. Immunological Reviews 1999 Apr;168:91-101. World Health Organisation. Weekly epidemiological record: Progress in global measles control and mortality reduction, 2000–2007 2008, No. 49, 83, 441–448 Kerdiles YM, Sellin CI, Druelle J, Horvat B. Immunosuppression caused by measles virus: role of viral proteins. Reveiws in Medical Virology. 2006 Jan-Feb;16(1):49-63. World Health Organisation. Mealses factsheet no 286 2009 Measles Initiative UN: Statement on Eradication by Kofi Annan 2011 measlesinitiative.org/ Figure 3 images obtained from google.co.uk/images Karp CL, Wysocka M, Wahl LM, et al. Mechanism of suppression of cell-mediated immunity by measles virus. Science. 1996 Jul 12;273(5272):228-31. GriffinDE, Moench TR et al. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells during natural measles infection; cell surface phenotypes and evidence for activation clinical immunology and immunopathology 1986 40 305-312 Niewiesk S, Gotzelmann M, and ter Meulen V. Selective in vivo suppression of T lymphocyte responses in experimental measles virus infection   Proceeding of the natural academy of sciences USA 2000 97;4251-5 Information from Undergraduate notes 2008 MMR vaccine kit insert from Merck Co Inc.Whitehouse Station NJ,USApublished 2010 Health Protection Agency. (HPA1) Completed primary course at two years of age: Englandand Wales, 1966-1977, Englandonly 1978 onwards. hpa.org.uk/web/HPAwebHPAwebStandard/HPAweb_C/1195733819251. Health Protection Agency. (HPA2) Confirmed cases of measles, mumps and rubella 1996-2009. hpa.org.uk/web/HPAwebHPAwebStandard/HPAweb_C/1195733833790